Frontiers | Empowerment or exploitation? reconsidering women’s social media entrepreneurship in the gig economy

Empowerment or exploitation? reconsidering women’s social media entrepreneurship in the gig economy

• 1. Department of Commerce, Marian College Kuttikkanam Autonomous, Kerala, India

• 2. Department of Commerce, Kuriakose Elias College, Kerala, India

• 3. Department of Economics, Kuriakose Elias College, Kerala, India

1 Introduction

Social media has fundamentally transformed contemporary entrepreneurial practices. Social media platforms like Instagram, TikTok, Facebook, Pinterest and YouTube have allowed people to set up businesses that require minimal startup capital and a quick reach to people around the world. Social media has significantly influenced women’s entrepreneurial participation in the economy, creative self-employment and flexible working opportunities, with the propensity to increasingly engage in these activities through digital platforms ().

However, more recently, the creation of what is called the creator economy and platform mediated entrepreneurship has further shifted social media from a promotional tool to an entrepreneurial infrastructure that now impacts on the visibility of creators, their engagement with audiences, monetisation of their content, and how the entrepreneurs’ commercial sustainability is shaped (; ). Although these developments have brought new possibilities for women entrepreneurs to sell their products in markets and develop sustainable digital ventures, they have also exacerbated the reliance on market platforms and algorithmic visibility, as well as on ongoing communicative labour. Today, entrepreneurial success increasingly depends on entrepreneurs’ ability to navigate platform rules, cultivate audience relationships, and adapt strategically to evolving platform ecosystems.

Social media has significantly expanded entrepreneurial opportunities for women by lowering barriers to market entry, reducing start-up costs, and facilitating direct access to geographically dispersed consumers (). These affordances have enabled women to establish creative enterprises, cultivate entrepreneurial identities, and participate more actively in digital economies. At the same time, entrepreneurial success increasingly depends not only on business capability but also on sustained platform visibility, audience engagement, and algorithmically mediated communication. Communication therefore becomes more than a promotional activity; it constitutes a productive form of entrepreneurial labour through which visibility, legitimacy, and commercial sustainability are continuously negotiated within platform ecosystems.

The developments are a sign of the fact that social media entrepreneurship is more than a technology or an economic phenomenon. Instead, platform governance, communicative work, and algorithmic visibility are now more and more vital aspects of entrepreneurial achievement. Thus, a conceptual model is needed that is able to reflect both entrepreneurial opportunity and platform dependency in the entrepreneurial experience of women.

The aim of the opinion paper is to rethink social media entrepreneurship of women, looking at it from the lens of platform capitalism, digital labour, feminist media studies and communication studies. Instead of entrepreneurship being merely a means for empowerment, this paper suggests that the success of the entrepreneur depends more and more on communicative labour, emotional branding and algorithmic visibility. Building upon recent discussions of platform-dependent entrepreneurship (), this paper proposes the Platform-Dependent Woman Entrepreneur as a communication-centred conceptual framework that extends existing theory by foregrounding the gendered communicative, emotional, and algorithmically mediated dimensions of entrepreneurial dependence within platform economies.

There are a few studies that have contributed to our knowledge of digital entrepreneurs, platform workers, influencers and content creators, but none has addressed the full range of these roles. However, as a social media entrepreneur, a woman holds a unique position in platform economies as she is not only a business owner but is also structurally dependent on privately-controlled digital platforms for demonstrating her entrepreneurial visibility, reaching audiences and achieving commercial viability. While working in platform business markets, women entrepreneurs have to negotiate algorithmic visibility, communicative expectations, and emotional performances as well as business management, in contrast to conventional entrepreneurs who are mainly impacted by their competitive capability. Feminist scholarship also indicates that women’s experiences of platform participation are often distinct from men’s due to the expectation that women are more authentic, emotional, responsive, aesthetic and vulnerable to online gendered hostility when visible as entrepreneurs. Hence, platform dependency should be seen not only as a dependency on technological aspects, but also as a dependency on gendered communicative expectations that give rise to opportunities and constraints for the entrepreneur.

2 Manuscript formatting

2.1 Authentic digital labour and gender equality

Entrepreneurship in social media is fundamentally different from traditional business entrepreneurial activity since entrepreneurial value is not just from the production and exchange of goods and services, it is generated from a continuous communicative interaction with platform ecosystems. Entrepreneurs should be aware of visibility, audience engagement, platform insights, and continuously evolve their communication approach for algorithmic-driven spaces. Thus, communicative, relational and affective activities become fundamental parts of entrepreneurial activity, instead of marketing. As such, from a digital labour perspective entrepreneurial communication is a productive labour which creates value for both the entrepreneur and the digital platforms (; ). Women’s social media entrepreneurship, therefore, should not be considered only as an activity of participating in the market but also as a participation in the platforms-based labour system, whose success is increasingly based on the need for ongoing communicative performance.

In digital economies, the distinction between productive labour, self-expression, identity performance and leisure have gotten increasingly blurred, as digital labour itself has long maintained (). Women entrepreneurs are a great example of this shift as entrepreneurial success is becoming more and more dependent on their ability to create content, engage in social media, tell a story, and build their own brand as an internet personality as well as a business owner. These communicative practices create economic value for both the entrepreneur and the platform owners, the audience and the advertisers, thus, perpetuating the quasi-dependence of the entrepreneur on the algorithms and systems of visibility that run through the platform (; ).

In addition to productive labour, women entrepreneurs engage in a lot of affective and relational labour by interacting with their audience, managing their community, being emotionally responsive to their audience and building trust with their audience. Feminist scholarship has long established that these kinds of labour are expected mainly of women since entrepreneurial success is often seen as being related to authenticity and emotional accessibility, not just entrepreneurial competence (; ). While they are largely hidden in traditional entrepreneurship studies, these communication practices are essential for economic value because they help to keep audiences loyal, keep people on the platform and help to preserve entrepreneurial continuity.

The feminisation of communicative labour is particularly evident in the realm of creator cultures, where technology has led to the development of para-social relationships, where women entrepreneurs must be constantly in touch with followers, must share a part of their life and must demonstrate emotional authenticity in becoming a successful entrepreneur. Such labour goes far beyond simply the promotion; it’s an <a href="https://bitcomme.com/envestnet-reaffirms-1b-ria-commitment-with-tamarac-tech-investment/” title=”Envestnet reaffirms $1B RIA commitment with Tamarac tech investment”>investment that creates the visibility, trust, engagement and value of platforms all at once. Communication then serves more than just as a facilitator of entrepreneurial activity, it is also economically productive labour that is engaged in the reproduction of entrepreneurial identities and commercial sustainability.

Digital labour therefore provides an important explanation for how entrepreneurial value is produced within platform economies. However, understanding women’s entrepreneurship requires moving beyond digital labour alone to examine how algorithmic governance, platform dependency, and communicative expectations jointly shape entrepreneurial opportunities and constraints.

2.2 Platform dependency and algorithmic precarity

Today, being platform-dependent has become a major characteristic of social media entrepreneurship. Social media entrepreneurs rely on entrepreneurial visibility, audience reach, and commercial sustainability, unlike traditional businesses which compete mostly in terms of their products, services, or positioning in the market, and rely on private and self-governing digital infrastructures that regulate their visibility, audience, and sustainability. Platform algorithms not only influence entrepreneurship opportunities but also the entrepreneurial strategic capabilities of the entrepreneurs themselves, as they determine what is visible, discoverable and thus economically worthwhile in the platforms (; ). Entrepreneurial success is therefore increasingly tied to the ability of entrepreneurs to constantly adjust to the changing recommendations systems, platform policies and algorithmic governance.

There is a basic paradox associated with platform dependency. Digital platforms significantly lower the cost of entry into entrepreneurship, as they offer low-cost access to markets and audiences, as well as to digital infrastructures. Meanwhile, they concentrate visibility, monetisation, and the access of audiences into their own closed and algorithm-driven systems, which they keep mostly hidden from entrepreneurs. For entrepreneurs, the outcome of their business can change drastically due to changes in their algorithmic recommendations, content moderation or even monetisation policies, without anything changing in their entrepreneurial ability or product quality (; ). But entrepreneurial risk is now more and more governed via platform control mechanisms as opposed to just market competition. Entrepreneurial sustainability is thus more than an enhancement of entrepreneurial competence, and relies on the ability to negotiate ongoing algorithmic uncertainty, as the entrepreneur’s job.

Although platform dependency explains entrepreneurs’ structural reliance upon digital infrastructures, entrepreneurial success is ultimately realised through communication. Visibility, legitimacy, and commercial sustainability emerge through communicative practices that continually translate algorithmic exposure into audience relationships and economic value.

2.3 Algorithmic visibility and communicative labour

In platform economies, the function of communication is not only to promote but to become a productive entrepreneurial practice as well. In addition to creating products or providing services, entrepreneurs have to constantly tell stories about themselves, new audiences, remain visible, and create a continuity of communication on platforms. Algorithmic visibility thus makes communication an economically productive endeavour as the success of entrepreneurs more and more hinges on the ability to keep the audience engaged with a content rather than just one-off promotions (; ).

Communicative labour can be defined as the ongoing creation of content, emotional interaction with audiences, responsiveness to the interaction on the platforms, and the performance of entrepreneurial authenticity. These communicative expectations are not gender-neutral and can be seen when comparing the experiences of men and women in the context of feminist media scholarship. Compared to their male counterparts, women entrepreneurs are more likely to be expected to look approachable, to be at the touch of the audience, to be authentic and appear at all times to be emotionally available and good looking (; ; ). Thus, entrepreneurial communication is both a means of economic production and gendered labour, it produces entrepreneurial visibility and it is not visible as labour.

2.4 Emotional branding and the “always-on” entrepreneur

Emotional branding has turned into the vital part of the platform-based entrepreneurship. Unlike traditional companies, social media business owners are increasingly developing a personal identity for themselves, their daily life, emotions and lifestories into entrepreneurial communication to build credibility, trust and maintain relationships with audiences. In the context of creator economies, visibility is not the only way of being entrepreneurial, because the continuous self-disclosure and relational communication of the creator is also a key entrepreneurial resource (; ).

However, the communicating expectations at the same time increase emotional pressure on entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurs have become more and more expected to be “always on”, emotionally attuned, genuine and personally available, whilst at the same time being expected to oversee the performance of the business. These pressures are not due to the fault of individual entrepreneurs; rather, they are a consequence of the nature of the platforms and their algorithms that encourage constant interaction, responsiveness and visibility. Research literature on platform labour is increasingly showing that these are structural conditions of platform labour and control, rather than indicative of individual failures to cope (.; ).

The developments mirror other cultures of entrepreneurial self-optimisation, where being visible is an ongoing entrepreneurial duty, not just a promotional task. Algorithmic relevance is a key driver of entrepreneurial success and is a process that requires constant content creation, engagement and identity performance. Thus, emotional branding must be seen less as a marketing strategy but as an integral part of communicative labour in which entrepreneurs manage their sustainability on a constant basis in platform economies.

The increasing “always-on” entrepreneurialism is noteworthy for the involvement of women, as entrepreneurial work is now part of the performance of identity. Women entrepreneurs are expected to sell products and services, and do it through authenticity, positivity, being emotionally resilient and accessible. Consequently, emotional branding should not be understood solely as a marketing strategy but as an integral component of platform labour. Entrepreneurial success increasingly depends upon the continuous performance of authenticity, emotional accessibility, and relational engagement, reinforcing the interdependence between communication, entrepreneurial identity, and platform capitalism.

2.5 Reconsidering empowerment narratives

Women’s social media entrepreneurship is often discussed in the narratives of empowerment, independence, flexibility as well as financial inclusion. Digital platforms have clearly increased business opportunities by reducing start-up costs, and providing more flexibility on how to work, and by offering a new avenue for generating income for women who are facing barriers in traditional labour markets (; ). This progress has enabled numerous women to create innovative businesses, cultivate a sense of entrepreneurship and be more engaged in digital economies.

But the opportunities should not be romanticised as an example of unqualified entrepreneurial empowerment. The very same infrastructures of platforms are also those that control visibility, monetisation, audience reach and commercial sustainability by proprietary algorithmic systems as well. Therefore, the structural dependence cannot be completely overcome by entrepreneurial ownership because ongoing communicative work, emotional brand, algorithmic responsiveness and interaction with the audience have become the basis for success in commercial ventures.

The theme of empowerment can then be said to have the effect of individualizing entrepreneurial success and to mask the underlying structure that generates entrepreneurial opportunities. Entrepreneurs have limited control over platform governance and algorithmic inequality, non-paid communicative labour, emotional exhaustion, and visibility dependence. As such, the failures of entrepreneurs can then be understood as personal failures that result from larger platforms infrastructures which control economic participation.

Moreover, platform entrepreneurship is often not institutionalized in the same way as traditional work with benefits like income security, labour rights, and health insurance, and support measures from the organizations. Women who become entrepreneurs in creator economies in turn then find themselves in a situation of entrepreneurial autonomy and economic precarity, typical symptoms of platform capitalism (; ). Gendered forms of online harassment, cyberbullying, reputational attacks and constant visibility anxiety experienced by women as entrepreneurs and creators in platform environments (; ) further amplify these structural vulnerabilities.

These structural conditions suggest that the experiences of women entrepreneurs cannot be adequately understood through narratives of empowerment alone. Although digital platforms undoubtedly expand entrepreneurial opportunities, they also embed entrepreneurs within communication systems governed by algorithmic visibility, platform policies, and continuous audience engagement. Entrepreneurial success, therefore, increasingly depends upon communicative labour, emotional performance, and sustained platform participation rather than solely upon entrepreneurial capability or innovation. Understanding these intersecting dynamics requires a conceptual framework that recognises both the opportunities created by digital platforms and the structural dependencies they simultaneously produce.

This dichotomy of empowerment and exploitation is therefore, not enough to explain women entrepreneurship in the social media. At the same time, the digital platforms open up entrepreneurial opportunities and place entrepreneurs in the network of algorithmic governance, communicative labour, emotional branding and platform dependency. Women’s experiences as entrepreneurs are thus not fully empowered nor entirely exploited but rather are ongoing struggles for entrepreneurial freedom and platform dependency. It is necessary to have a conceptual framework that can incorporate both aspects of the dynamics, instead of focusing on just one aspect.

2.6 The platform-dependent woman entrepreneur

Recent scholarship has made significant contributions to our understanding of entrepreneurship in a digital context, including the notions of digital entrepreneurship, platform work, creator labour and platform-dependent entrepreneurship. Digital entrepreneurship is a research field that investigates how digital technologies enable entrepreneurs to develop and generate value for ventures (), creator labour research studies the nature of labour relations, algorithmic governance of platforms (), and visibility labour, content production and audience engagement (; ). More recently, platform-dependent entrepreneurship was conceptualised to explain entrepreneurs’ increasing reliance on platform infrastructures (). While these views offer valuable insights, they fail to capture the gendered communicative and emotional aspects of platform dependency of women social media entrepreneurs.

The present paper does not attempt to say that women constitute a completely distinct category of entrepreneurs. But, it proposes that when entrepreneurial activity is situated in the context of gendered expectations of visibility, authenticity, emotional accessibility and relational engagement, it takes on a different communicative texture and form than platform dependency. The proposed framework is an extension of platform dependency theory, and explicitly includes these gendered communicative processes in the conceptualisation of entrepreneurial dependence. The framework is grounded in the surrounding legacy of research and theory, such as those of creator labour, platform work, influencer research, and emotional labour. These literatures explore various empirical populations but have a shared interest in entrepreneurial activity that relies on the continual communication, audience engagement, algorithmic visibility and emotional performance of platform infrastructures. These literatures, therefore, are used as informative analogues from a theoretical perspective and not as solid empirical data for women entrepreneurs. Empirical future studies are needed on the dynamics of the various types of digital entrepreneurship by women.

Drawing on the preceding discussion, Table 1 specifies the proposed framework by outlining its core dimensions, their conceptual meanings, and illustrative manifestations.

Conceptual dimensions of the platform-dependent woman entrepreneur framework.

The proposed framework should therefore be understood as a conceptual apparatus rather than a descriptive category. The dimensions collectively explain how platform dependency extends beyond technological reliance to encompass communicative labour, emotional branding, gendered expectations, and platform precarity. By specifying these dimensions, the framework provides a coherent theoretical foundation for future qualitative studies, comparative analyses, and empirical operationalisation.

The Platform-Dependent Woman Entrepreneur is thus defined as an entrepreneur whose business viability relies on entrepreneurial ownership, an algorithmically mediated visibility, communicative work, emotional branding, and gendered participation in the platforms. The framework focuses specifically on communication as an entrepreneurial productive activity, rather than just a part of platform-dependent entrepreneurialism, as this is the activity through which entrepreneurial identities, economic opportunities and commercial sustainability are negotiated continuously in platform capitalism. The framework identifies the mechanisms, scale and observable outcomes of platform dependency and pushes the field of communication scholarship forward while offering a clear basis for further empirical operationalisation.

2.7 Policy implications for communication scholarship

Communication scholarship needs to shift away from “heroic” projections of digital entrepreneurship and explore the political economy of platform-mediated work critically.

First, future studies are needed to examine the impacts of algorithms on the visibility of entrepreneurs and economic inequality. Platform infrastructures have a significant impact on the visibility, engagement and monetisation opportunities that are made available to entrepreneurs.

Second, the emotional and psychological implications of the 24/7 digital presence of women entrepreneurs need to be studied. Burnout, anxiety, self-surveillance and emotional exhaustion are becoming more and more central experiences in platform economies.

Thirdly, intersectionality needs to be further highlighted in the field of social media entrepreneurship. Platform labour experiences are linked to class, race, geography, language and access to digital technologies, shaping who can participate, gain visibility, and sustain entrepreneurial success within platform-based economies. Communication research, therefore, needs to acknowledge the inequalities in opportunities and vulnerabilities in digital entrepreneurial cultures.

Lastly, the study of platform governance and platform labour regulation should be critically addressed by communication scholars. Discourses for entrepreneurship in the present tend to focus on the individual’s strength and self-optimisation without holding structural accountability for digital capitalism. Such efforts would contribute to more equitable platform governance and more inclusive digital entrepreneurial ecosystems for women entrepreneurs.

2.8 Conclusion

Social media entrepreneurship is one of the most salient expressions of today’s digital work. Platforms are crucial for women entrepreneurs in terms of economic involvement, creativity and as a space to be more visible as entrepreneurs. These opportunities are, however, parallel to those of precarious job opportunities that are common in the gig economy and platform capitalism.

This paper contributes to communication scholarship by proposing the Platform-Dependent Woman Entrepreneur as a conceptual framework for understanding how entrepreneurial success within platform economies increasingly depends upon communicative labour, emotional branding, and algorithmically mediated visibility. Rather than viewing women’s social media entrepreneurship solely through narratives of empowerment or exploitation, the proposed framework demonstrates how entrepreneurial identities are simultaneously enabled and constrained by platform governance and communication infrastructures.

Future communication research should empirically examine the Platform-Dependent Woman Entrepreneur across different social media platforms, cultural contexts, and entrepreneurial sectors to better understand how algorithmic governance, platform dependency, and communicative labour shape entrepreneurial experiences in the evolving creator economy.

Ultimately, the Platform-Dependent Woman Entrepreneur framework encourages communication scholars to move beyond simplistic narratives of entrepreneurial empowerment or exploitation and instead recognise the complex communicative infrastructures through which entrepreneurial opportunities are simultaneously enabled and constrained. By foregrounding communication as productive labour, the framework contributes to emerging debates on platform capitalism, digital entrepreneurship, and feminist communication scholarship.

Statements

AG: Writing – review & editing. NJ: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. AT: Writing – review & editing.

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The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

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Summary

communicative labour, creator economy, digital labour, gig economy, social media entrepreneurship, women entrepreneurship

George A, Jose N and Amal Sharin TJ (2026) Empowerment or exploitation? reconsidering women’s social media entrepreneurship in the gig economy. Front. Commun. 11:1895277. doi: 10.3389/fcomm.2026.1895277

Virienia Puspita, Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia

Leila Mona Ganiem, Mercu Buana University, Indonesia

Ilham Gemiharto, Padjadjaran University, Indonesia

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

†
These authors share first authorship

ORCID Ajimon George orcid.org/0000-0002-9680-9482 Neethu Jose orcid.org/0009-0009-5476-2581 T. J. Amal Sharin orcid.org/0009-0003-3294-5850